History of Medicine

This summer, I got the opportunity of a lifetime with my internship at a renowned neurology lab at MGH. I am learning so much, not just about scientific processes and research procedures, but also about Alzheimer's disease, a terrible disease afflicting over 35 million people worldwide. Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive (and currently incurable) brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, eventually leading to the inability to carry out even the most basic tasks such as walking and dressing. The lab focuses on the pathological pathway to Alzheimer’s disease, which is still not fully understood. More about my lab research can be found at https://www.massgeneral.org/neurology/research/tanzi-lab-genetics-and-aging.  Alzheimer's disease was first studied by (and is named after) Dr. Alois Alzheimer who was treating a patient with mental illness with severe memory loss, language problems, and unpredictable behavior.  After her death in 1906, Dr. Alzheimer exami

As we come to accept that the great covid-19 pandemic which started off as an epidemic is slowly becoming  endemic , it's worth noting the new additions to our vocabulary. These words that were likely "all Greek to you" before 2020, are indeed just that -- they are all in fact derived from ancient Greek! The word  epidemic was in use since at least the time of Homer which is around 600 BCE, and is mentioned in the Odyssey to mean "who is back home" or "who is in his country." However, it was first introduced to medical jargon, along with its closely associated words pandemic and endemic , by the ancient Greek doctor, Hippocrates.    Hippocrates' treatise on Epidemics  Evolution of the term Epidemics. Credit: Paul Martin And not just these but several other words that we have come to associate with the current pandemic (as well as other diseases) were also coined by Hippocrates and his medical school such as: Cytokine Chronic Resolution Peak Acute

Welcome to Fall! Today, the autumn equinox marks the beginning of fall, my favorite season of all! “Equinox” of course means equal night in Latin and marks the day when the sun shines directly on the equator and both poles are equidistant from the sun, making day and night of equal length. It is also a point of balance between changing seasons, and between feminine and masculine energies. Position of earth relative to sun  It held special significance in ancient times as many societies celebrated it as a festival of harvest. In Greek mythology, the fall equinox marks the return of the goddess Persephone to the underworld to reunite with her husband Hades, king of the underworld (who incidentally abducted her after falling in love with her). Although she was rescued by her father, Zeus, she chooses to go back to Hades for six months every year during autumn and winter. Her mother, Demeter, who is the Goddess of agriculture and fertility, mourns her loss by making the earth infertile dur

I have previously written about the ancient medical science of India called Ayurveda. Tracing its roots back to 6000 BCE (unofficially), Ayurveda is older than the Classical civilizations and thus predates Greek medicine. Ayurveda is still in practice in many parts of India as alternative medicine. But I recently discovered there is another form of alternative medicine in India called Unani medicine. I first heard about it from a Harvard professor and I was embarrassed to admit I hadn't heard of it, so I decided to dig deeper and what I found is quite interesting. Turns out it is still used in practice today as one of the 5 traditional medical sciences recognized by the Indian government as AYUSH ( Ayurveda, Yoga, Unani, Siddhi, Homeopathy).   Interestingly, Unani medicine is none other than ancient Greek medicine practiced by Hippocrates and Galen. In fact, Unani means "Greek" in Arabic. Unani medicine was introduced in India around the tenth century by Arab and Persian

Someone asked me what was cupping after I mentioned it in a recent post, so I decided to write a post explaining the ancient medical practice. Athletes, particularly swimmers, routinely show up with cupping marks on their bodies as seen in the recently concluded Tokyo Olympics. The telltale red circles were first seen on Michael Phelps' torso at the 2016 Rio Olympics. Since then, it has become a popular therapy among athletes from swimming to gymnastics to football. I had a firsthand experience with cupping (No, I am not brave enough to try it!), but I got a peek of it when my old neighbor, former Patriots player Dwayne Allen, was getting it done on his back in his living room with the front door wide open! My brother now swears by it, so that's another personal experience I can claim. Michael Phelps showing cupping marks. Image: A-Team Performance Cupping is a procedure done primarily to reduce pain and inflammation but also for relaxation and to improve blood flow. Phelps and

Although western medicine has its roots in the Classical Greek civilization, the history of medicine dates back thousands of years before Classical Greece. Medicine started developing as a science in the earliest human civilizations and developed independently in all four of the major ancient civilizations: • Babylon/Mesopotamia • Egypt • India • China They represent four of the oldest branches of medicine with each developing independently and presumably without any interaction or influence from each other. And yet, they have many similarities. Ancient medicine in (clockwise from top left) Babylon, Egypt, China, and India  Babylon Babylonians believed that diseases were caused by supernatural forces (gods and demons) and therefore, did not distinguish between magic and medicine, yet they introduced the practice of diagnosis and prognosis. Treatment included identifying the illness according to the power that caused it, and treating it with medical agents and rituals to appease t

Considering cancer is one of the oldest diseases of mankind, dating back to prehistoric ages, it is astounding that there is yet no real cure for cancer! Not only that, we have yet to fully understand what causes cancer in humans, and how to stop it. The Egyptians have the earliest record of identifying and treating cancer as far back as 3000 BC. The Edwin Smith Papyrus describes 8 different types of cancer and mentions there is no cure for it. At the same time, it describes surgery and cauterization, which involved destroying tissue with a hot instrument called “the fire drill” as treatments used on tumors. Ancient Egyptians were able to distinguish between benign tumors from malignant (cancerous) tumors. Edwin Smith papyrus The ancient Greeks also made a detailed study of cancer, with Hippocrates being the first and perhaps the most significant. Hippocrates identified malignant and non-malignant tumors and likened its appearance to a crab, thus giving rise to the nam

Just as we owe most of our medical knowledge to the physicians of ancient times, there are some medicines in use today that are directly taken from ancient medicine. One such ancient medicine that is still used today, albeit in a different form, is aspirin. Aspirin is arguably the most commonly used drug in the world today. It  has  appeared in the Guinness Book of Records as the most frequently sold pain reliever in the world and is also  “one of the most endurably successful commercial products of all time."   Its use ranges from simple pain relief to heart attack and stroke prevention.  The active ingredient of Aspirin is the medicinal compound salicin, which is refined from willow bark, and that's the ancient connection. Willow bark was used extensively by the ancient Sumerians and Egyptians for pain relief, and later advocated by Hippocrates in Greece and Pliny the Elder in Ancient Rome. Willow bark continued to be used as a pain reliever in its natural form until the mid

Pandemic probably tops the long list of new words added to our vocabulary in 2020, but before it earned that notoriety, covid-19 was classified as an epidemic in Wuhan, China. It was only in March 2020 that WHO upgraded it to a pandemic -- far deadlier and more widespread than an epidemic. What's in a name, you ask? Merriam Webster defines an epidemic as a disease affecting a large number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time;  a pandemic is an epidemic occurring worldwide, or over a very wide area, crossing international boundaries and usually affecting a large number of people, according to the WHO. Not surprisingly, both words are derived from ancient Greek. Pandemic comes from the Greek word pandemos , based on pan meaning "all" + demos meaning "people" or "population"; pandemic therefore affects nearly all of the people. In contrast, epi means "upon," so epidemic is something visited upon the people. 

Just as the purpose of the brain and the heart confused ancient scientists, so did the nervous system. Nerves had been identified fairly early but they proved difficult to categorize. Some thought it was similar to arteries and formed some sort of connective system for tissues. In fact, the word nerve is Greek for tendon or sinew, suggesting that it was thought to be some sort of physical connection. Despite the confusion about its exact mechanism, ancient medical practitioners seemed to understand its function. Nerves were attributed to both movement and sensation correctly, even though there were opposing views on what controlled these functions. Aristotle argued that nerves originated and were controlled by the heart, while others argued nerves were controlled by the brain. Centuries later, Galen proved that nerves emanated from the brain, scoffing at those “who know nothing of what is to be seen in dissection." Galen was the first to conclude that the spinal cord was an

As I wrote in my last post, Hippocrates was the first physician to recognize the brain as the center of conscience and intelligence. Until then, it was widely believed that the heart controlled all emotions and intellect. This theory came from the ancient Egyptians who maintained that the heart was the seat of thought and soul, and the brain was nothing more than an accessory. They believed that good deeds lightened the heart, so when one died, the God Ammut would weigh the heart and decide your fate depending on the weight. A heart that was as light as a feather was returned to life, but a heavy heart was gobbled up. It seems that this is the reason we correlate happiness and kindness with a light heart and grief with a heavy heart! God Ammut weighing a dead man's heart in the afterlife. Image: National Geographic The ancient Greeks had opposing views on the center of thought and emotions. Aristotle was one of the most famous proponents of the Egyptian theory that the hear

This summer, I am taking a course in neuroscience at Harvard Summer School. I am super excited about this course because I have always wanted to learn about neuroscience, and who can argue about taking a course at Harvard? The study of the brain is such a fascinating subject, and I have always wanted to learn more about it. Since I am the only left-handed person in my immediate family, it has always intrigued me to learn that right and left-handedness is controlled by different sides of the brain. So my brain functions differently than everyone else in my family! At least that's what I understand. I hope to confirm this and a lot more when I actually take the class. The brain is hands down the most complex organ of the human body. It controls so many functions- motor skills, memory, emotions to name just a few. It's no wonder it has intrigued men since the ancient times, as early as the Greeks and Hippocrates himself. In fact, it is often said that the birth of neuroscienc

Another important person in Greek medicine is Hippocrates. Hippocrates is considered the father of modern medicine who continues to influence medicine more than 2000 years later. Although he is as revered as Asclepius, they have very different origins. While Asclepius is a mythological character, considered to be descended from God, Hippocrates is very much a historical figure, whose origin and life is recorded in history. Hippocrates lived from 460 to 375 BCE during the Classical Greece period and practiced medicine in Greece. His contribution to western medicine is rivaled by none other, and his collection of works covers almost every aspect of disease and medicine including infection, hygiene, epidemiology and the human immune system. Bust of Hippocrates Also, unlike Asclepius, Hippocrates practiced medicine as a science, not as divine magic. He was one of the first to separate religion from medicine, and sought to match treatment with symptoms.  His observations in the Corp

Happy Easter! Every year for Easter Sunday, Christians around the world pray to Jesus Christ, their Savior. It is the fundamental belief of the Christian faith that Christ came on earth to heal humans and rid them of their pains and sicknesses. On this occasion, I thought it would be cool to look at some of the supernatural beliefs related to medicine in the ancient world. Most of the ancient civilizations had a close relationship with god. All suffering and diseases were attributed to the wrath of the gods. This was most evident in the oldest civilizations of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. The ancient Egyptians believed that gods, demons, and spirits played a key role in causing diseases. They believed that spirits blocked channels in the body and affected the way the body functioned. They used prayer as a solution to their diseases, and priests played the role of doctors. Similarly, the Babylonians believed spirits were responsible for illness, with each spirit responsible for o