History of Medicine

Today, March 30, is celebrated as National Doctors' Day to honor the noble profession and show our gratitude to the many doctors who show up to work for a greater calling than most professions. On this day, I thought it would be fitting to honor the first doctors in history, those who paved the way for the medical profession to become a sought-after career path for people like me. I thought I would explore the earliest physicians known to the different ancient civilizations that I have covered in this blog and their place in history. Looking at the list of ancient physicians, (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_ancient_physicians), I found the earliest known physician to be Egyptian, so let's start with that. Around the same time, medicine was developing as a science in India too. Ancient Greece and China appear to have dedicated medical professionals almost 2000 years later.  Egypt: The oldest known Egyptian physician is Imhotep, who lived around 2700 BCE . He was worshippe...

Following up on my previous post on the use of pi in science, I wanted to write about something very fascinating I found. Not only is pi a fundamental concept for geometry, it apparently has a connection to the very building blocks of life. Biological sciences appear farthest from math, yet this enigmatic number plays a role in biological pattern formation, i.e. a leopard's spots, a zebra's stripes, a leaf's feathering etc. I have to admit this concept is still not very clear, and I need to do a lot more reading to understand it fully, but here's a high-level description. The creation of specific organs and patterns from a single group of cells was a long-standing mystery to scientists until it was unlocked by the genius that cracked Hitler's Enigma code during World War II. Regarded as the father of computer science and artificial intelligence, Alan Turing's interests went far beyond computers into the depths of the nature of life. After the end of the war, in ...

On this Pi Day, besides celebrating with a piece of pecan pie, I wanted to explore the connection this mathematical enigma has with ancient science.  Not surprisingly, the concept of Pi was known to many ancient civilizations including the Indians, Chinese, Babylonians, and Egyptians. However, its modern name and symbol   came much later -- in the  1700s after William Jones introduced the symbol  π and Euler popularized it. Indians are known to be the earliest users of pi, although western texts often overlook this fact and attribute the first calculation of the value of pi to Archimedes of Syracuse around 200 BCE. However, Pi has been mentioned as early as 1500 BCE in the Hindu religious text, the Rigveda. It is believed that ancient Indians were familiar with pi even earlier, but this part of its history is largely unknown to the western scientific world. The value of pi was approximated to be 3 by most ancient civilizations. The first person to calculate the value...

We stand at the cusp of a new era of human reproduction where parents can choose to have babies with specific genetic traits. Companies like Californian start-up Orchid are starting to offer embryo screening which allows prospective parents to identify the healthiest embryo for pregnancy by identifying defective genes. A natural progression of the In Vitro Fertilization (IVF) technology that originated in the 70’s allows genetic screening and diagnosis of the embryo prior to implantation, enabling doctors to selectively implant embryos that are devoid of certain genetic defects. While Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD) gives parents the ability to screen for severe, life-threatening (or life-limiting) inheritable diseases like cystic fibrosis and Huntington’s disease on one hand, it also opens up the possibility of something scientists have warned against for decades – designer babies! A designer baby is a genetically engineered baby with specially selected traits ranging from l...

The exploitation of black people and appropriation of human rights by reason of public health boasts bold imperialistic and colonial ideology. During the colonization of the Philippines, the US used the lack of hygiene of the Filipino people as an excuse to assert control over the population under the guise of civilizing the population, in the process of furthering their own political goals. The practice of public defecation was touted as the reason for Americans to take control of public health in the Philippines. Filipinos were treated as lesser humans, allowing Americans a self-imposed power granted on account of their comparative civility.  Rather than helping improve their infrastructure and education, Americans used intrusive methods in studying the feces of the Filipino people, an act that was deeply offensive and dehumanizing. In Excremental Colonialism, Warwick Anderson states that “the work meant invasion of the accepted rights of the home and of the individual on a ...

Following up on my last few posts on the importance of informed consent in medical research, I wanted to dig deeper into the practice of clinical trials and patients' rights in medical research. The concept of informed consent, the basis of which is the stipulation that people will make the right choice for their own health and wellness, is a well-established principle of bioethics. However, it is less clear about its prevalence in public health, and the recent covid-19 pandemic has further stoked discussions about patients' rights and value of consent in the face of a global health event. The DNA genetic testing company, 23andMe, has also demonstrated how consent is an obstruction to researchers’ ability to use and exploit personal data. It is known that the company's primary goal is to gather genetic data that can then be used for research. However, the company has feined an interest in empowering individuals to take control of their own health, and used that for their ma...

As I wrote in my previous post, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced in 2021, amidst much fanfare, the successful conclusion of a pilot program for the malaria vaccine developed by GSK and that it was recommending a broad rollout in Africa. A nurse with the new malaria vaccine. Image courtesy: Gavi While the decision marked a landmark victory in the fight against malaria, a disease that has plagued humans since the origins of mankind, it was not without criticism, including from the well-respected Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, which has funded part of the research into the vaccine.  The vaccine, known as RTS,S and developed by GSK, requires four doses to achieve a rather dismal efficacy of 30%. Despite it not meeting (or even coming close to) WHO's set goal of 75% efficacy, the organization gave the vaccine its full backing and support, even pushing forward with a pilot study in four African countries with nearly a million participants.  Critics have pointed out ...

“Over millennia, its victims have included Neolithic dwellers, early Chinese and Greeks, princes, and paupers.”  Few ailments have reigned over mankind for centuries like malaria. Responsible for over half a million deaths each year, with 2/3rds of those being children under the age of five, the disease has claimed between 150 million and 300 million lives in the last century alone. Almost 5% of deaths in the 20th century have been attributed to malaria, according to Carter and Mendis, 2002. It is also spread throughout the globe, with 40% of the world's population living in areas where malaria is still a threat. However, about 95% of cases and deaths in 2021 belonged to sub-Saharan Africa. Given the significant threat to human lives that malaria presents, the prospect of a vaccine that could eradicate the disease from our populations is extremely attractive. Not only from a humanitarian viewpoint, but a medical one too, as it would herald a new age of health and medicine. However,...

Malaria and Western Colonialism are intricately involved in history, with each having a profound effect on the other. As I wrote in an earlier post, it was the fear of malaria that protected Africa from colonization for many centuries. Labeling it the "white man's grave," European colonizers shunned the continent because of the high mortality rate suffered by Europeans who were not naturally immunized against African diseases like malaria. However, with the discovery of quinine in the 1850's, the Europeans finally found a way to combat the deadly disease, and the entire continent was colonized within thirty years. Quinine had such a far-reaching effect on the African subcontinent that it is often termed "the cure that changed the world." Map showing presence of malaria in Africa Colonization led to export of human labor from Africa, and with that, the export of malaria. Just as malaria had kept colonization out of Africa before, now colonization helped sprea...

The face mask became ubiquitous during the covid-19 pandemic, but its history dates long before it became one of the most politically charged controversies of 2020. In fact, it was well-known and widely used by both medical personnel and the public during the 1918 flu pandemic and also became common in China and Korea during the SARS outbreak. Red Cross nurses wearing face masks during 1918 pandemic  But it had made an appearance centuries ago, as long back as the 1600s. Thanks to the miasma theory of disease, which attributed diseases to bad air, people often tried to protect themselves with cloth coverings on their faces during epidemics or while tending to the sick. The idea was the same as today's mask use but without an understanding of germs. This was most stark during the various plague outbreaks. Plague masks became common in the 1600s and were worn by doctors while treating the infected. The plague masks were however, rather comical with long elongated beaks and two nostri...

Today on calendae Ianuariae , or first day of January, we celebrate the beginning of a new year. The Latin word Calendae means the first day of every month in the Roman calendar. (Rather obvious is the English word "calendar" that is derived from it.) Ianuarius is the month of January, named after Janus, the Roman god of all beginnings and origins, the guardian of doors, gateways, and passages, and the patron of agreements and alliances. There is no equivalent god to Janus in Greek mythology.  Two-faced Janus God looking backwards and forward Calendae Ianuariae became significant in 153 BC when Julius Caesar added two months before March to better align with the solar cycle. On this day, Roman consuls took office (instead of the traditional Ides of March as done earlier).  Julian calendar with the two additional months added before March On this Calendae Ianuariae, let's toast to new beginnings, new pathways, and a new future filled with limitless possibilities! Novus Ann...

This summer, I got the opportunity of a lifetime with my internship at a renowned neurology lab at MGH. I am learning so much, not just about scientific processes and research procedures, but also about Alzheimer's disease, a terrible disease afflicting over 35 million people worldwide. Alzheimer’s disease is a progressive (and currently incurable) brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, eventually leading to the inability to carry out even the most basic tasks such as walking and dressing. The lab focuses on the pathological pathway to Alzheimer’s disease, which is still not fully understood. More about my lab research can be found at https://www.massgeneral.org/neurology/research/tanzi-lab-genetics-and-aging.  Alzheimer's disease was first studied by (and is named after) Dr. Alois Alzheimer who was treating a patient with mental illness with severe memory loss, language problems, and unpredictable behavior.  After her death in 1906, Dr. Alzheimer exam...

As I consider majoring in neurobiology (the study of the biological mechanisms that control the nervous system) in college, I thought it would be interesting to delve into the origins of neuroscience. For hundreds of years from the ancient Egyptians to the Greeks, humans believed that the seat of intellect was the heart (which is why the ancient Egyptians went to great lengths to preserve the heart after death but discarded the brain!)    The birth of neurology began 2500 years ago with Hippocrates who pondered over the purpose and functioning of the brain, reasoning that the brain must be the organ controlling sensation simply because most sensory organs - eyes, ears, and tongue -- are located close to the brain. This was starkly different from other opinions of the time which held that the heart was the main organ that controlled everything in humans. The brain was simply thought to be a "radiator" for pumping the heart and keeping it cool.  Later, Hippocrates expanded ...

As we come to accept that the great covid-19 pandemic which started off as an epidemic is slowly becoming  endemic , it's worth noting the new additions to our vocabulary. These words that were likely "all Greek to you" before 2020, are indeed just that -- they are all in fact derived from ancient Greek! The word  epidemic was in use since at least the time of Homer which is around 600 BCE, and is mentioned in the Odyssey to mean "who is back home" or "who is in his country." However, it was first introduced to medical jargon, along with its closely associated words pandemic and endemic , by the ancient Greek doctor, Hippocrates.    Hippocrates' treatise on Epidemics  Evolution of the term Epidemics. Credit: Paul Martin And not just these but several other words that we have come to associate with the current pandemic (as well as other diseases) were also coined by Hippocrates and his medical school such as: Cytokine Chronic Resolution Peak Acute ...

As the only lefty in my immediate family, I have always been intrigued by handedness, which is defined as an individual's preferential use of one hand, also known as the dominant hand. This post is dedicated to all the world's lefties trying to function in a right-handed world (you know what I'm talking about!) For my clueless right-handed friends, think of me when you see a classroom desk, scissors, or a microscope!)  Left-handedness is apparently genetic, so it's all the more surprising that I'm the only one in my family. However, my extended family on my dad's side certainly has some more lefties, so it's not all that strange. Another interesting tidbit that I found was that India has about half as many left-handers as the United States (despite its much larger population), and this is attributed mainly to the cultural aspect of the society. India is known to be a "collectivistic culture", which discourages left-handedness in children, whereas i...

Happy Star Wars Day on this May the 4th! On this momentous day for Star Wars fans, I wanted to revisit the concept of the "force" that Star Wars borrowed from ancient medicine.   As Obi-Wan Kenobi explains, “The Force is what gives a Jedi his power. It’s an energy field created by all living things. It surrounds us and penetrates us; it binds the galaxy together.”  Pretty heavy stuff!  In an old post, I explored the similarity between this force field and the life force that is an essential component of many ancient civilizations: prana in India, qi in Chinese culture, Japanese  ki, Egyptian ka,  Greek pneuma ,   and the Latin spiritus . All of these are essentially the same "life force energy" that keeps us alive and binds us. Just as Luke Skywalker trains to harness the power of the force, yoga, reiki, taichi and other ancient practices teach how to control and balance the life force present inside of us. So here's wishing everyone boatloads of ...

For World Health Day 2022, the WHO has selected the theme, "Our Planet, Our Health", with the aim of creating a healthier world. WHO's statement reads,  "In the midst of a pandemic, a polluted planet, increasing diseases like cancer, asthma, heart disease, on World Health Day 2022, WHO will focus global attention on urgent actions needed to keep humans and the planet healthy and foster a movement to create societies focused on well-being."  In the spirit of World Health Day, I wanted to explore the idea of health in ancient medicine. This is a topic that I have written on before but I thought it would be interesting to compare the ideology of good health in different societies of the ancient world. Ancient Medicine Across all ancient civilizations, before scientific thought became common, the prevailing idea was that  good health was a divine gift, while poor health was attributed to divine punishment. Theory of Spirits Even though the ancient Egyptians were one...